Bull Figurines
The Mehrgarh Urban Society
The early birth places of civilization in southern Mesopotamia,the Nile Valley,coastal Peru, and the Harappan societies of the sub-continent post date a relatively progress urban centre in modern day Pakistan.Changes in the NW of the sub-continent from 8000-7000 BCE [all dates calibrated] contributed to the establishment of many small communities and hamlets.Mehrgarh at the foot of the Bolan Pass,Baluchrist,Pakistan was settled ca 7500 BCE.There is no evidence of prior hunter-gatherers at this locale [D Chakrabarti,1999] which could imply that the initial colonists had acquired agricultural skills before their arrival in this region.However fluvial avulsion post 7000 BCE has damaged some of the archaeological sites,which might have contained evidence of earlier occupation.
The inhabitants of Mehrgarh had access to local copper sources,flint cobbles which were transported by the Bolan River,calcite for bead manufacture,a diversity of feral game [deer,water buffalo,onager,pigs,etc],and fish/water fowl which they do not appear to have exploited to any significant extent.However the sediments at these sites were not screened,which may have discriminated against small bird ad fish bones.The cattle sheep and goats,which were eventually domesticated at Maehrgarh,are considered to have been of local origin [G Possehl,2002].By 7000 BCE this farming village probably had a population of ca 100 inhabitants,who resided on the river banks in small, multi-room,adobe,rectangular homes,with square rooms.Flora analysis identified semi-feral and wild grains at the settlement.The people harvested wheat and barley with flint sickles,which were hafted with bitumen and herded goats and sheep.Subsequently zebu cattle became smaller during the during the process of domestication,[ P Asko,1994].
Between 7000 and 6000 BCE the dead were interred with reverence beneath courtyards or in cemeteries.Simple funerary items included Arabian Sea shells,which were obtained from 500km distant.It was during this stage that the residents of Mehrgarh progressed to the second stage of the communities development.They began to exploit their strategic position on the inland trade routes [eg: lapis luzal was imported from Afganistan;ibid].The crucial decision to engage in commodity exchange was the first commercial venture to distinguish Mehrgarh from the other small agricultural communities in the region. Their participation in trade networks motivated the populace to manufacture merchandise for exchange,which substantially enhanced the diversity of their economy.
From 6000-5000 BCE,when the village eventually covered an areal extent of 2ha,some rudimentary pottery and bitumen coated baskets were produced.Compartmental storage structures were constructed,which yielded charred grain remains.Storage facilities were a vital component for future development.An increase in the ratio of domestic to feral animal bones illustrates that the pastoral economy was keeping pace with other sectors.Statues of zebu cattle were shaped,which demonstrates their significance to the local population.Many graves from this era did not contain funerary items and eventually formal cemeteries were established.Some corpses were laid to rest in underground tombs,that were divided by low,mud brick walls.A funeral chamber ca 5400 BCE contained a bracelet with eight rare copper beads,that had been heated and beaten into shape [ibid].A piece of cotton was identified on a bead [C Moulherat,2002].He could not determine whether the cotton was wild or domesticated.Moulherat “suspected” the latter,because cotton seeds were recovered from a mud brick room that was constructed at a later date.B Mills,2005] contends that the first metallic objects came to Mehrgarh ca 7000-6500 BCE [no reference cited].Post 5000 BCE the lost wax casting technique and copper alloys wre used to make small ornaments.
Examination of skeleton remains revealed that natural flouride in the water reduced tooth decay.Mehrgarh residents had exceptionally large teeth similar to those of SE Asian native people [Jarrigo].By 5500 BCE domestic cattle were the prime source of meat for domestic consumption.The populace appears to have been relatively self sufficient.There is evidence of smelting in Mehrgarh from ca 5000-3600 BCE.Metal knives,hooks and awls were produced.Green jasper was utilized to manufacture bow drill tips.Wheel thrown ceramics were initially relatively plain.Ca 4000 BCE pottery was adorned with geometric designs and animal motifs.Mehrgarh Togau A ware has been identified at numerous distal sites including Mundigak,Afganistan [P Asko.1994].
From ca 5500-4000 BCE the areal extent and population of Mehrgarh progressively expandedBy 4000 BCE mud brick dwellings had four to six rooms,with reed mats on the floors.Ovens and hearths were usually in the corner of a room.These homes did not have external doors,which suggests that access was through the roof.Craft specialization gradually gained in importance and included stone masons.jewellers.potters,bead stringers,basket makers,bakers and metal workers among others.Commerce and private ownership gained greater ascendancy temporally as the town continued to prosper. Although there was continuity from prior periods,foreign influences eventually had an impact on the local culture [G Possehl,2002].
The early figurines at Mehrgarh were relatively simple without distinctive indications of gender,Broad hips and buttocks could infer females.These figurines were generally seated with joined legs and no arms.Clay was applied to the body to make necklaces and belts.Some were coated with ochre.Prior to 4000 BCE during the Togau phase,which was an important era of craft innovation,no human figurines were created.Bulls were the dominant form.Subsequently mainly composite female figurines dominate,which became more elaborate as time progressed [C Jarrigo,1991].
Prior to 4000 BCE the population of Mehrgarh is estimated to have been in excess of 20.000 people.It was one of,if not the largest urban centre in the world at that time,with a diverse,largely self sufficient economic base,which had an appreciable commercial component.To place the achievements of these farmers,artisans and merchant traders in their proper perspective,none of the “four cradles of civilization” contained a coeval,progressive urban centre of this magnitude.The residents of Mehrgarh prospered in their fields of endeavour and appear to have readily taken advantage of the opportunities, that their strategic position presented.Since metal was not commonly used for weapons until 3500-3000 BCE [B Mills,2005],the formative years of Mehrgarh society could have been relatively peaceful.There is no definitive evidence of warfare prior to 4000 BCE.The population successfully coped with and adapted to changes in the course of the Bolan River over 4Ka.
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